ࡱ > " _ S bjbj ӫ b b $ q q t R $ v
b H ( p p p
$ ~
p p H ڼ ڼ ڼ p p
ڼ
ڼ ڼ p b D F
0
ʲ & p P % x ڼ
q } : Characterization of entomopathogenic fungi as a natural biological control of American cockroaches (Periplaneta americana)
EMANTIS ROSA(, C.N. EKOWATI, TUNDJUNG TRIPENI HANDAYANI, AHMAD IKHSANUDIN, FERLY APRILIANI, ACHMAD ARIFIYANTO
Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Lampung, Jl. Prof. Soemantri Brojonegoro No 1, Gedong Meneng, Rajabasa, Bandarlampung 35144, Lampung, Indonesia, Tel.: +62-721 704625 Fax. +62-721 704625,
(email: emantisrosa@gmail.com
Manuscript received: 1 September 2020. Revision accepted: 16 October 2020.
Abstract. Rosa E, Ekowati CN, Handayani TT, Ikhsanudin A, Apriliani F, Arifiyanto A. 2020. Characterization of entomopathogenic fungi as a natural biological control of American cockroaches (Periplaneta americana). Biodiversitas 21: xxxx. Eradicating cockroaches using chemical insecticides produces residues that contaminate the environment and promote insect resistance. Biological control has become an option for controlling cockroaches.The use of entomopathogenic fungi is one of them.The aim of this study was to obtain a fungal isolate that was effective at killing cockroaches. The result of entomopathogenic fungi isolation from cockroaches obtained 4 isolates, IK1, IK2, IK3 isolates were included in the Aspergillus genus while IK4 was Penicillium. Extracellular enzymes serve as screening materials for biocontrol candidates. IK1 and IK3 isolates showed higher chitinase activity than the other two isolates. The highest mortality of Periplaneta americana at nymphs stage was 60% achieved by the treatment of Aspergillus sp. IK3 with a concentration of 109 conidia/ mL. In adult stage cockroach the mortality was increased till 86%.
Keywords: Aspergillus, biological control, cockroaches, entomopathogenic fungi, nymphs
INTRODUCTION
Cockroaches are vectors of disease. Their bodies have been shown to carry not only parasites ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1155/2017/7967325","ISSN":"20900031","abstract":"Cockroaches have been recognized as mechanical vectors of pathogens that can infest humans or animals. A total of 844 adult cockroaches (436 males and 408 females) were caught. In the laboratory, cockroaches were first washed in saturated salt solution to remove ectoparasites and then rinsed with 70% alcohol, dried, and dissected for endoparasites. An overall transport rate of 47.39% was recorded. Six genera of parasites were identified. These were Ascaris (33.76%), Trichuris (11.97%), Capillaria (6.16%), Toxocara (4.86%), Hook Worm (4.86%), and Eimeria (2.73%). The parasites were more recorded on the external surface (54.27%) of cockroaches than in the internal surface (GIT, 38.51%). The same tendency was obtained between sexes with female cockroaches having a higher transport rate (36.69%). Cockroaches caught in toilets carried more parasites (31.99%) as compared to those from kitchens (22.63%) and houses (11.14%). Almost all encountered parasites were recognized as responsible of zoonosis and they can be consequently released in nature by hosts and easily disseminated by cockroaches as mechanical vectors. Sanitary education, reenforcement of worms' eradication programs, and the fight against these insects remain a necessity in the Mlong Subdivision.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Atiokeng Tatang","given":"R. J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Tsila","given":"H. G.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Wabo Pon","given":"J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Parasitology Research","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"title":"Medically Important Parasites Carried by Cockroaches in Melong Subdivision, Littoral, Cameroon","type":"article-journal","volume":"2017"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=8fcd4160-d8a3-4648-8783-3295fc593bb6"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Atiokeng Tatang et al., 2017)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Atiokeng Tatang et al., 2017)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Atiokeng Tatang et al., 2017)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Atiokeng Tatang et al. 2017) but also a number of antibiotic-resistant pathogenic bacteria ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1155/2016/2825056","ISSN":"23146141","PMID":"27340653","abstract":"Background. Cockroaches are source of bacterial infections and this study was aimed to assess bacterial isolates and their antimicrobial profiles from cockroaches in Gondar town, Ethiopia. Methods. A total of 60 cockroaches were collected from March 1 to May 30, 2014, in Gondar town. Bacterial species were isolated from external and internal parts of cockroaches. Disk diffusion method was used to determine antibiotic susceptibility patterns. Data were entered and analyzed by using SPSS version 20; P values <0.005 were considered as statistically significant. Results. Of 181 identified bacteria species, 110 (60.8%) and 71 (39.2%) were identified from external and internal parts of cockroaches, respectively. Klebsiella pneumoniae 32 (17.7%), Escherichia coli 29 (16%), and Citrobacter spp. 27 (15%) were the predominant isolates. High resistance rate was observed to cotrimoxazole, 60 (33.1%), and least resistance rate was noted to ciprofloxacin, 2 (1.1%). Additionally, 116 (64.1%) of the isolates were MDR strains; Salmonella spp. were the leading MDR isolates (100%) followed by Enterobacter (90.5%) and Shigella spp. (76.9%). Conclusion. Cockroaches are the potential source of bacteria pathogens with multidrug resistant strains and hence effective preventive and control measures are required to minimize cockroach related infections.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Moges","given":"Feleke","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Eshetie","given":"Setegn","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Endris","given":"Mengistu","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Huruy","given":"Kahsay","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Muluye","given":"Dagnachew","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Feleke","given":"Tigist","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Silassie","given":"Fisha G.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ayalew","given":"Getenet","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Nagappan","given":"Raja","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"BioMed Research International","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"publisher":"Hindawi Publishing Corporation","title":"Cockroaches as a Source of High Bacterial Pathogens with Multidrug Resistant Strains in Gondar Town, Ethiopia","type":"article-journal","volume":"2016"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=689e587b-bd1c-43e0-a912-3653bdda812f"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Moges et al., 2016)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Moges et al., 2016)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Moges et al., 2016)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Moges et al. 2016). They were found both indoors (kitchen & toilet) and outdoors (drainage and sewer). Environment condition and organic matter of these habitats were attracted them to feed. Cockroach contact with a number of household items due to their mobility was increased the risk of pathogens transmission to humans ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.3923/je.2018.143.148","ISSN":"18125689","abstract":"Background and Objective: Cockroaches are considered as obnoxious household pest due to its nature that can feed on almost everything. It is believed that cockroaches are the mechanical vectors for many kinds of parasites. As this nocturnal insect moves indiscriminately from places to places, the ability to crawl into every nook and crevices can cause it to pick up various pathogen and parasites that can be transmitted to human. The present study aimed to identify the parasites carried by cockroaches from two food stalls and two restaurants in Indera Mahkota, Kuantan. Materials and Methods: The cockroaches caught from the species of Periplaneta americana. The cockroach samples were collected using plastic traps and sticky traps. The samples were processed by using normal saline solution to obtain parasites. Normal saline solution with the freshly killed cockroaches were shaken vigorously and observed under light microscope to identify the presence of parasites. Results: The identification of cockroaches showed that the most parasites found were mites. Other parasites found including Strongyloides eggs, Strongyloides larvae and Ascaris eggs. There was no protozoan cyst found in all cockroach samples in the present study. The numbers of parasites carried from the cockroaches caught from the stalls were higher compared to the number of parasite from cockroaches caught from the restaurant. Low hygienic level at the stalls facilitates the cockroach infestation at the stall compared than the restaurant. Conclusion: Hence, cockroaches serve as carrier for endoparasites and ectoparasites. The findings from the present study suggested that appropriate preventive measures such as maintaining cleanliness of the stalls and restaurants can prevent the infestation of the cockroaches.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Yusof","given":"Afzan Mat","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Entomology","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"3","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"page":"143-148","title":"Identification of cockroaches as mechanical vector for parasitic infections and infestations in Kkuantan, Malaysia","type":"article-journal","volume":"15"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=b8c30c68-a3b1-4aeb-9295-25eace6cc0c6"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Yusof, 2018)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Yusof, 2018)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Yusof, 2018)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Yusof 2018).
Parasites and pathogenic bacteria carried by cockroaches cause diseases in humans such as toxocariasis, pneumonia, urinary tract infections, dysentery, and diarrhea. In people with asthma and rhinitis, cockroaches also cause allergic reactions. To minimize above diseases cockroach control is required properly. Control was carried out either mechanically, chemically or biologically. Mechanical control constrained by the mobility of cockroaches and their populations ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1098/rsif.2014.1363","ISSN":"17425662","PMID":"25740855","abstract":"Natural systems retain significant advantages over engineered systems in many aspects, including size and versatility. In this research, we develop a hybrid robotic system using American (Periplaneta americana) and discoid (Blaberus discoidalis) cockroaches that uses the natural locomotion and robustness of the insect. A tethered control system was firstly characterized using American cockroaches, wherein implanted electrodes were used to apply an electrical stimulus to the prothoracic ganglia. Using this approach, larger discoid cockroacheswere engineered into a remotely controlled hybrid robotic system. Locomotion control was achieved through electrical stimulation of the prothoracic ganglia, via a remotely operated backpack system and implanted electrodes. The backpack consisted of a microcontroller with integrated transceiver protocol, and a rechargeable battery. The hybrid discoid roach was able to walk, and turn in response to an electrical stimulus to its nervous system with high repeatability of 60%.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Sanchez","given":"Carlos J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Chiu","given":"Chen Wei","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Zhou","given":"Yan","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gonzlez","given":"Jorge M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Vinson","given":"S. Bradleigh","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Liang","given":"Hong","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of the Royal Society Interface","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"105","issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]},"title":"Locomotion control of hybrid cockroach robots","type":"article-journal","volume":"12"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=e0282528-23bd-4860-afc4-c5a2a8ce9f58"]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1242/jeb.101501","ISSN":"00220949","PMID":"25013115","abstract":"The integration of information from dynamic sensory structures operating on a moving body is a challenge for locomoting animals and engineers seeking to design agile robots. As a tactile sensor is a physical linkage mediating mechanical interactions between body and environment, mechanical tuning of the sensor is critical for effective control. We determined the open-loop dynamics of a tactile sensor, specifically the antenna of the American cockroach, Periplaneta americana, an animal that escapes predators by using its antennae during rapid closed-loop tactilely mediated course control. Geometrical measurements and static bending experiments revealed an exponentially decreasing flexural stiffness (EI) from base to tip. Quasi-static experiments with a physical model support the hypothesis that a proximodistally decreasing EI can simplify control by increasing preview distance and allowing effective mapping to a putative control variable - body-to-wall distance - compared with an antenna with constant EI. We measured the free response at the tip of the antenna following step deflections and determined that the antenna rapidly damps large deflections: over 90% of the perturbation is rejected within the first cycle, corresponding to almost one stride period during high-speed running ( <"5 0 m s ) . A n i m p u l s e - l i k e p e r t u r b a t i o n n e a r t h e t i p r e v e a l e d d y n a m i c s t h a t w e r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a n i n e l a s t i c c o l l i s i o n , k e e p i n g t h e a n t e n n a i n c o n t a c t w i t h a n o b j e c t a f t e r i m p a c t . W e c o n t e n d t h a t p r o x i m o d i s t a l l y d e c r e a s i n g s t i f f n e s s , h i g h d a m p i n g a n d i n e l asticity simplify control during high-speed tactile tasks by increasing preview distance, providing a one-dimensional map between antennal bending and body-to-wall distance, and increasing the reliability of tactile information.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Mongeau","given":"Jean Michel","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Demir","given":"Alican","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Dallmann","given":"Chris J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jayaram","given":"Kaushik","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Cowan","given":"Noah J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Full","given":"Robert J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Experimental Biology","id":"ITEM-2","issue":"18","issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]},"page":"3333-3345","title":"Mechanical processing via passive dynamic properties of the cockroach antenna can facilitate control during rapid running","type":"article-journal","volume":"217"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=00f21841-f147-4e15-890c-be8401aab536"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Mongeau et al., 2014; Sanchez et al., 2015)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Mongeau et al., 2014; Sanchez et al., 2015)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Mongeau et al., 2014; Sanchez et al., 2015)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Mongeau et al. 2014; Sanchez et al. 2015). Chemical control was a promising solution. ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.18502/jad.v12i2.43","ISSN":"23222271","PMID":"30123811","abstract":"Background: Cockroaches consists of 4000 species, of which 40 species are serious domestic pests. They have involved the mechanical transmission of various pathogenic viruses, bacteria, and protozoans to humans. This study aimed to determine different control methods of P. americana in sewage system of Esfahan City, central Iran using different insecticides recommended by WHO. Methods: Totally, 164 manholes with at least more than three cockroaches were selected until 2017 for this study. The species of cockroaches were identified; the adults and nymphs were counted and recorded. Each sewer shaft was assigned to one treatment method in an ascending order of number of cockroaches counted, coding the treatment method with paint on the lower part of the wall near the manhole cover. The manhole shafts were then inspected at 1 and 5 months' post-treatment. Data analyzed by statistical methods. Results: Almost all of the products (Excluding boric acid with bait formulation) resulted in appropriate control with-in one month of application. The appropriate products for chemical control of cockroaches were the chlorpyrifos 5% Emulsifiable Concentrate (EC), diazinon 5% (EC), diazinon 0.05% (EC) and cypermethrin 5% Fog. These pesticides achieved an optimal reduction of population providing more than 90% control of cockroaches for five consecutive months. Conclusion: The emulsifiable concentrates and fog formulations in the control were more successful compared to other methods and this was penetration deep into the hiding places of cockroaches.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Zahraei-Ramazani","given":"Ali Reza","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Saghafipour","given":"Abedin","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Vatandoost","given":"Hassan","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Arthropod-Borne Diseases","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"page":"172-179","title":"Control of American Cockroach (Periplaneta americana) in municipal sewage disposal system, Central Iran","type":"article-journal","volume":"12"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=89bb78b4-a3a5-41aa-8533-338c23eb50d7"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Zahraei-Ramazani et al., 2018)","manualFormatting":"Zahraei-Ramazani et al., (2018)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Zahraei-Ramazani et al., 2018)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Zahraei-Ramazani et al., 2018)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}Zahraei-Ramazani et al. (2018) reported that 90% of the American cockroach (Periplaneta americana) population has been successfully controlled, using chemical control. Unfortunately, this treatment also was threatens non-target insects and resulted resistance vectors and produced residues that pollute the environment ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.3389/fpubh.2016.00148","ISSN":"2296-2565","PMID":"27486573","abstract":"The industrialization of the agricultural sector has increased the chemical burden on natural ecosystems. Pesticides are agrochemicals used in agricultural lands, public health programs, and urban green areas in order to protect plants and humans from various diseases. However, due to their known ability to cause a large number of negative health and environmental effects, their side effects can be an important environmental health risk factor. The urgent need for a more sustainable and ecological approach has produced many innovative ideas, among them agriculture reforms and food production implementing sustainable practice evolving to food sovereignty. It is more obvious than ever that the society needs the implementation of a new agricultural concept regarding food production, which is safer for man and the environment, and to this end, steps such as the declaration of Nylni have been taken.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Nicolopoulou-Stamati","given":"Polyxeni","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Maipas","given":"Sotirios","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Kotampasi","given":"Chrysanthi","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Stamatis","given":"Panagiotis","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Hens","given":"Luc","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Frontiers in Public Health","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"July","issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"page":"1-8","title":"Chemical Pesticides and Human Health: The Urgent Need for a New Concept in Agriculture","type":"article-journal","volume":"4"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=6017ab44-b4cc-4f55-99e6-a5cd8ec1639a"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Nicolopoulou-Stamati et al., 2016)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Nicolopoulou-Stamati et al., 2016)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Nicolopoulou-Stamati et al., 2016)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Nicolopoulou-Stamati et al. 2016).
Entomopathogenic fungi, was unconventional applications ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1007/s11157-020-09525-1","ISBN":"1115702009","ISSN":"15729826","abstract":"Entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) are microorganisms that cause fatal diseases of arthropods. The infection process involves several stages that consist of direct contact of the fungus with the surface of the cuticle of the attacked insect. The factors that determine the effectiveness of the infection process include lytic enzymes, secondary metabolites, and adhesins produced by EPF. Because of their high insecticidal effectiveness, these fungi are commonly used as biopesticides in organic farming. As the environment and farmlands are contaminated with many compounds of anthropogenic origin (e.g., pesticides), the effects of these toxic compounds on EPF and the mechanisms that affect their survival in such a toxic environment have been studied in recent years. This review presents information on the capacity of EPF to remove toxic contaminants, including alkylphenols, organotin compounds, synthetic estrogens, pesticides and hydrocarbons. Moreover, these fungi produce numerous secondary metabolites that can be potentially used in medicine or as antimicrobial agents. Despite their huge potential in biocontrol processes, the use of EPF has been underestimated due to a lack of knowledge on their abilities. In our work, we have presented the available data on the possibilities of the additional and unconventional use of these microorganisms.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Litwin","given":"Anna","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":" " } , { " d r o p p i n g - p a r t i c l e " : " " , " f a m i l y " : " N o w a k " , " g i v e n " : " M o n i k a " , " n o n - d r o p p i n g - p a r t i c l e " : " " , " p a r s e - n a m e s " : f a l s e , " s u f f i x " : " " } , { " d r o p p i n g - p a r t i c l e " : " " , " f a m i l y " : " R |a l s k a " , " g i v e n " : " S y l w i a " , " n o n - d r o p p i n g - p a r t i c l e " : " " , " p a r s e - n a m e s " : f a l s e , " s u f f i x " : " " } ] , " c o n t a i n e r - t i tle":"Reviews in Environmental Science and Biotechnology","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2020"]]},"page":"23-42","title":"Entomopathogenic fungi: unconventional applications","type":"article-journal","volume":"19"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=7ad48372-f328-4c15-8c4f-efb95547e5ac"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Litwin et al., 2020)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Litwin et al., 2020)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Litwin et al., 2020)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Litwin et al. 2020)of the biological control options in controlling cockroaches. It has several advantages such as affordable cost, high yield, and not interferethe environment with the residue ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.3390/app10010360","ISSN":"20763417","abstract":"Among the non-chemical insect control methods, biological control is one of the most eective human and environmentally friendly alternatives. One of the main biological control methods is the application of entomopathogenic fungi (EPF). Today, biological crop protection with EPF plays a key role in projects for the sustainable management of insect pests. EPF have several advantages over conventional insecticides, including cost-eectiveness, high yield, absence of harmful side-eects for beneficial organisms, fewer chemical residues in the environment and increased biodiversity in ecosystems. Apart from direct application as contact bioinsecticides, EPF are able to colonize plants as endophytes acting not only as pest and disease control agents but also as plant growth promoters. The present paper presents an outline of the biocontrol potential of several EPF, which could be harnessed for the development of new integrated pest Management (IPM) strategies. Emphasis is given on benefits of endophytic EPF, on issues for practical application and in fields in need of further research. Our findings are discussed in the context of highlighting the value of entomopathogenic fungal endophytes as an integral part of pest management programs for the optimization of crop production.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Mantzoukas","given":"Spiridon","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Eliopoulos","given":"Panagiotis A.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Applied Sciences (Switzerland)","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2020"]]},"title":"Endophytic entomopathogenic fungi: A valuable biological control tool against plant pests","type":"article-journal","volume":"10"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=2653327f-1a09-4606-8989-cf417a88c167"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Mantzoukas & Eliopoulos, 2020)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Mantzoukas & Eliopoulos, 2020)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Mantzoukas & Eliopoulos, 2020)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Mantzoukas and Eliopoulos 2020). EPF collected from agricultural soil samples ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Robles-acosta","given":"","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Indira","given":"N","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Julio","given":"C","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Reyna","given":"I","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Landeros-Flores","given":"","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jernimo","given":"","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Vanoye-Eligio","given":"","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Venancio","given":"","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Florida entomologist","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"page":"303-308","title":"Entomopathogenic Fungi as Biological Control Agents of Phyllocoptruta oleivora ( Prostigmata : Eriophyidae ) under Greenhouse Conditions Entomopathogenic fungi as biological control agents of Phyllocoptruta oleivora ( Prostigmata : Eriophyidae ) under gre","type":"article-journal","volume":"102"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=4ca1ae4f-9525-4c8c-87f1-980f841e8741"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Robles-acosta et al., 2019)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Robles-acosta et al., 2019)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Robles-acosta et al., 2019)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Robles-acosta et al. 2019), rhizosphere of maize plants ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.13057/biodiv/d200536","ISSN":"20854722","abstract":"The diversity and characters of entomopathogenic fungi in soil are influenced by cultivation techniques. This study aims at determining the characters and pathogenicity of entomopathogenic fungi in maize plant. Materials were extracted from maize plant rhizosphere at different planting system (monoculture, polyculture, and monoculture of corn on formerly oil palm plantation or replanting) in Nagari Koto Baru, Luhak Nan Duo Subdistrict, West Pasaman District, and West Sumatra Province. Insect bait and series dilution were used to carry out the isolation, while Tenebrio molitor larvae were used for the pathogenicity test. Parameters observed include macroscopic and microscopic characteristics, and pathogenicity of entomopathogenic fungi. The result shows that there are three types of entomopathogenic fungi with various features. After identification, it was known that Aspergillus and Metarizium were obtained from mono, polyculture and by replanting crops, while Beauveria was found from the rhizosphere of corn grown in polyculture with pathogenicity identified as one of the high causes of death to larvae T. molitor with LT50 ranging from 48.03-48.48 hours.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Nelly","given":"Novri","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Syahrawati","given":"My","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Hamid","given":"Hasmiandy","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Habazar","given":"Trimurti","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gusnia","given":"Dwi Nasri","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Biodiversitas","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"5","issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"page":"1435-1441","title":"Diversity and characterization of entomopathogenic fungi from rhizosphere of maize plants as potential biological control agents","type":"article-journal","volume":"20"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=27696125-b267-458c-b5c9-ebb5895b7e06"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Nelly et al., 2019)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Nelly et al., 2019)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Nelly et al., 2019)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Nelly et al. 2019), and soils andIxodes scapularis ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.956839","ISBN":"6176321972","ISSN":"15378276","PMID":"1000000221","abstract":"With the effectiveness of therapeutic agents ever decreasing and the increased incidence of multi-drug resistant pathogens, there is a clear need for administration of more potent, potentially more toxic, drugs. Alternatively, biopharmaceuticals may hold potential but require specialised protection from premature in vivo degradation. Thus, a paralleled need for specialised drug delivery systems has arisen. Although cell-mediated drug delivery is not a completely novel concept, the few applications described to date are not yet ready for in vivo application, for various reasons such as drug-induced carrier cell death, limited control over the site and timing of drug release and/or drug degradation by the host immune system. Here, we present our hypothesis for a new drug delivery system, which aims to negate these limitations. We propose transport of nanoparticle-encapsulated drugs inside autologous macrophages polarised to M1 phenotype for high mobility and treated to induce transient phagosome maturation arrest. In addition, we propose a significant shift of existing paradigms in the study of host-microbe interactions, in order to study microbial host immune evasion and dissemination patterns for their therapeutic utilisation in the context of drug delivery. We describe a system in which microbial strategies may be adopted to facilitate absolute control over drug delivery, and without sacrificing the host carrier cells. We provide a comprehensive summary of the lessons we can learn from microbes in the context of drug delivery and discuss their feasibility for in vivo therapeutic application. We then describe our proposed synthetic microbe drug delivery system in detail. In our opinion, this multidisciplinary approach may hold the solution to effective, controlled drug delivery.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Tuininga","given":"Amy R.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Miller","given":"Jessica L.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Morath","given":"Shannon U.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Daniels","given":"Thomas J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Falco","given":"Richard C.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Marchese","given":"Michael","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Sahabi","given":"Sadia","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rosa","given":"Dieshia","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"III","given":"Kirby C. Stafford","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"J Med Entomol","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"3","issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]},"page":"557565","title":"Isolation of Entomopathogenic Fungi From Soils and Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) Ticks: Prevalence and Methods","type":"article-journal","volume":"46"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=dc67d007-4116-4ae6-b3c3-eda186da8f4e"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Tuininga et al., 2009)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Tuininga et al., 2009)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Tuininga et al., 2009)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Tuininga et al. 2009). Several studies reported that entomopathogenic fungi such as Aspergillus sp, Geotrichum sp., and Penicillium sp., have been used as bioinsecticides against house flies (Musca domestica) in larval stage ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Septiana","given":"Nofita","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rosa","given":"Emantis","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ekowati","given":"Christina Nugroho","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Biosfer: Jurnal Tadris Biologi","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"page":"87-94","title":"Efektivitas Jamur Entomopatogen sebagai Bioinsektisida Lalat Rumah (Musca domestica)","type":"article-journal","volume":"10"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=f1ad3b77-46ab-4d82-8880-32e951ded630"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Septiana et al., 2019)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Septiana et al., 2019)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Septiana et al., 2019)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Septiana et al. 2019), Mucor sp., Penicillium sp., Aspergillus sp., as a control for adult mosquitoes (Aedes aegypti) ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.31957/jbp.832","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Supiyanto","given":"","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rosa","given":"Emantis","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Irawan","given":"Bambang","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Nukmal","given":"Nismah","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issue":"1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"page":"33-41","title":"Isolasi dan Uji Patogenitas Isolat Fungi Entomopatogen Terhadap Stadium Dewasa Nyamuk A e des aegypti","type":"article-journal","volume":"11"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=8600a145-1ca4-40db-ac6c-83da9f309932"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Supiyanto et al., 2019)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Supiyanto et al., 2019)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Supiyanto et al., 2019)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Supiyanto et al. 2019) and Metharizium anisopliae as a control for the German cockroach population (Blattella germanica) ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.jip.2012.12.010","ISSN":"00222011","PMID":"23274080","abstract":"The substantial negative impact of some parameters on the germination of low-quality conidia (high proportion of slow-germinating propagules) was demonstrated, whereas for high-quality batches their effect was small or even absent. Germination was increased as the initial hydration status of conidia immediately prior to suspension preparation was increased, being ca. 33% and 80% for dehydrated Metarhizium a n i s o p l i a e p r o p a g u l e s ( w a t e r a c t i v i t y d"0 . 3 1 4 ) f r o m l o w - o r h i g h - q u a l i t y b a t c h e s a f t e r a n 1 8 . h i n c u b a t i o n p e r i o d , r e s p e c t i v e l y , a n d 6 3 % a n d 9 5 % f o r h y d r a t e d p r o p a g u l e s ( w a t e r a c t i v i t y = 0 . 9 3 3 ) . G e r m i n a t i o n o f l o w - q u a l i t y p r o p a g u l e s a l s o i n c r e a s e d a s t h e t i m e dry conidia were kept in aqueous suspension prior to inoculation onto culture media (15. min, 3 or 24. h) or the incubation time at 25. C before counts (18, 48 or 72. h) was increased. Depending on treatment conditions, average germination of low-qualit y c o n i d i a v a r i e d f r o m 5 3 % t o 9 8 % . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , g e r m i n a t i o n f o r h i g h - q u a l i t y c o n i d i a w a s a l w a y s e"9 4 % . R e g a r d i n g t h e r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y ( R H ) o f t h e i n c u b a t i o n a t m o s p h e r e , t h e a v e r a g e g e r m i n a t i o n r a t e s f o r l o w - q u a l i t y c o n i d i a o n P o t a t o D e x t r o s e A g a r ( P D A ) i n P e t r i p l a t e s w a s 4 9 % , w h i l e g e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e s e c o n i d i a o n P D A b l o c k s k e p t u n d e r l o w e r R H i n s i d e p l a s t i c b o x e s w a s d"2 3 % . U s e o f l a c t o p h e n o l - s t a i n i n g a n d / o r u s e o f c o v e r s l i p s h a d a n e g a t i v e e f f e c t w h e n g e r m i n a t i o n a s s e s s m e n t w a s p e r f o r m e d f o r l o w - q u a l ity conidia, resulting in distorted counts or increased standard deviations compared to high-quality conidial batches. The occurrence of dislodged conidia (ungerminated conidia outside the inoculation zone due to hydraulic pressure exercised by addition of stains and/or coverslips added to the substrate by the time germination is assessed) was common place, whereas dislodged conidia were not seen in treatments with high-quality batches. This work underscores the importance of a number of parameters that anyone working with low-quality fungi needs to be cognizant of in their research. 2013 Elsevier Inc.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Lopes","given":"Rogrio B.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Martins","given":"Irene","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Souza","given":"Daniela A.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Faria","given":"Marcos","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Invertebrate Pathology","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"3","issued":{"date-parts":[["2013"]]},"number-of-pages":"236-242","title":"Influence of some parameters on the germination assessment of mycopesticides","type":"book","volume":"112"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=d0990631-1ec0-4d5b-90cd-f45b159decf5"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Lopes et al., 2013)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Lopes et al., 2013)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Lopes et al., 2013)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Lopes et al. 2013). Entomopathogenic fungi information on Periplaneta americana is still limited. This study was aim to determine the enzymatic characteristics of entomopathogenic fungi and their effect on the number of deaths in nimpha and adult stage of P. americana.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Isolation and identification of entomopathogenic fungi
Entomopathogenic fungi was isolated from the body parts of P. americana by a moist chamber method. The moist chamber method was carried out by immersing the body parts of the P. americana cockroach in 70% alcohol for 30 seconds and sterile distilled water twice consecutively for 2 minutes for surface sterilization. It placed on moistened tissue in a Petri dish. It incubated at 28oC for 3-5 days ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1007/978-1-4939-9861-6_32","ISBN":"978-1-4939-9861-6","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jain","given":"A","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jain","given":"R","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jain","given":"S","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2020"]]},"number-of-pages":"117-118","publisher":"Springer Protocols Handbooks","publisher-place":"Humana, New York, NY.","title":"Isolation of Coprophilous Fungi (Moist Chamber Method). In: Basic Techniques in Biochemistry, Microbiology and Molecular Biology","type":"book"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=7d0a753e-f7ba-4b1a-a135-5a42c5576027"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Jain et al., 2020)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Jain et al., 2020)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Jain et al., 2020)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Jain et al. 2020)
Entomopathogenic fungi which grown were cultured at Potato Dextrose Agar. They were purified and followed by morphological observation using a slide culture (72 hours) completed with the data of the mycelium, conidia, and conidia-producing bodies. The characteristics were compared with the ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Barnet","given":"H.L.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Hunter","given":"B.B","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"edition":"4th","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1998"]]},"publisher":"Macmillian Publishing Company","publisher-place":"New York","title":"Ilustrated Genera of Imperfect Fungi","type":"book"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=bad73c84-0620-48c3-89d2-06a6dca59362"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Barnet & Hunter, 1998)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Barnet & Hunter, 1998)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Barnet & Hunter, 1998)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Barnet and Hunter 1998).
Colloidal chitin preparation
Chitin powder (5g) was weighed and dissolved in 80 mL of concentrated HCl. The mixture was homogenized using a magnetic stirrer for 30 minutes and allowed to stand at 4oC for 24 hours. The mixture was filtered using glass wool. The filtrate obtained was added with 40 mL of cold distilled water and then homogenized using a magnetic stirrer. The pH was adjusted with the addition of 12 N NaOH to close to 7. The mixture was centrifuged at 7.500 rpm for 15 minutes. The filtrate obtained was separated from the supernatant and added with cold distilled water. It was again centrifuged at 7500 rpm for 15 minutes. The filtrate obtained was colloidal chitin ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.21082/jbio.v9n2.2013.p77-84","ISSN":"1907-1094","abstract":"
Beauveria bassiana is one of the
entomopathogenic fungus that produces chitinase when
infecting its host. This study was aimed to purify, isolate and
characterize chitinase of B. bassiana isolate BB200109.
Pathogen identity was determined both morphologically and
molecularly using ITS primer, whilst characterization was
done at various conditions i.e. temperature, pH, metal ion
and incubation time. Results showed that the BB200109
isolate belonged to B. bassiana. The isolate produced
extracellular chitinase with chitinolytic index of 1.035. Partial
purification of three saturated ammonium sulphate
precipitation (10, 30, and 70%) showed maximum purity of
1.2 times, while dialysis could increase the purity of 1.9
times compared to that of crude enzyme extract.
Characterization results showed that the chitinase isolated
from B. bassiana isolate BB200109 had an optimum activity
at pH 4, temperature 50oC, and optimum incubation time of
90 minutes. The effect of metal ions (60 mM) Mn2+ served as
activator, while EDTA, K+, Mg2+, Cu2+, Fe2+, Zn2+, and Na+
acted as inhibitors. The chitinase demonstrated lower
affinity to chitin substrate as indicated by high Km value of
0.266 mg/l and a Vmax of 0.067 mg/l sec. Based on SDS-PAGE,
chitinase from B. bassiana isolate BB200109 had molecular
weight of 60.25 kDa. The study implied the potency of
B. bassiana isolate BB200109 as extracellular chitinase
producer with its enzyme charateristics seems to be
developed as an insect biocontrol agent.
","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Suryadi","given":"Yadi","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Priyatno","given":"Tri P.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Samudra","given":"I Made","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Susilowati","given":"Dwi N.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Lawati","given":"Nuni","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Kustaman","given":"Eman","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Jurnal AgroBiogen","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"page":"77","title":"Pemurnian Parsial dan Karakterisasi Kitinase Asal Jamur Entomopatogen Beauveria bassiana Isolat BB200109","type":"article-journal","volume":"9"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=d2c27785-6880-4a06-ac77-08d7a45b9424"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Suryadi et al., 2016)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Suryadi et al., 2016)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Suryadi et al., 2016)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Suryadi et al. 2016).
Entomopathogenic fungi chitinolytic actitivity
The chitinolytic ability of entomopathogenic fungi was tested using a mixture of PDA media with 1% colloidal chitin. The media was sterilized in an autoclave for 15 minutes. Media that has been sterile added 500 mg/ L of chloramphenicol. The media was poured into sterile Petri dishes. Entomopathogenic fungi isolate was inoculated into the test medium using a needle loop, after the media had solidified. Chitinolytic activity was detected by the formation of a clear zone around the fungus colony. The clear zone was visualized by sprinkling 0.1% congo red and washed using 1 M NaCl ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.21082/jbio.v9n2.2013.p77-84","ISSN":"1907-1094","abstract":"Beauveria bassiana is one of the
entomopathogenic fungus that produces chitinase when
infecting its host. This study was aimed to purify, isolate and
characterize chitinase of B. bassiana isolate BB200109.
Pathogen identity was determined both morphologically and
molecularly using ITS primer, whilst characterization was
done at various conditions i.e. temperature, pH, metal ion
and incubation time. Results showed that the BB200109
isolate belonged to B. bassiana. The isolate produced
extracellular chitinase with chitinolytic index of 1.035. Partial
purification of three saturated ammonium sulphate
precipitation (10, 30, and 70%) showed maximum purity of
1.2 times, while dialysis could increase the purity of 1.9
times compared to that of crude enzyme extract.
Characterization results showed that the chitinase isolated
from B. bassiana isolate BB200109 had an optimum activity
at pH 4, temperature 50oC, and optimum incubation time of
90 minutes. The effect of metal ions (60 mM) Mn2+ served as
activator, while EDTA, K+, Mg2+, Cu2+, Fe2+, Zn2+, and Na+
acted as inhibitors. The chitinase demonstrated lower
affinity to chitin substrate as indicated by high Km value of
0.266 mg/l and a Vmax of 0.067 mg/l sec. Based on SDS-PAGE,
chitinase from B. bassiana isolate BB200109 had molecular
weight of 60.25 kDa. The study implied the potency of
B. bassiana isolate BB200109 as extracellular chitinase
producer with its enzyme charateristics seems to be
developed as an insect biocontrol agent.
","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Suryadi","given":"Yadi","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Priyatno","given":"Tri P.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Samudra","given":"I Made","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Susilowati","given":"Dwi N.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Lawati","given":"Nuni","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Kustaman","given":"Eman","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Jurnal AgroBiogen","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"page":"77","title":"Pemurnian Parsial dan Karakterisasi Kitinase Asal Jamur Entomopatogen Beauveria bassiana Isolat BB200109","type":"article-journal","volume":"9"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=d2c27785-6880-4a06-ac77-08d7a45b9424"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Suryadi et al., 2016)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Suryadi et al., 2016)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Suryadi et al., 2016)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Suryadi et al. 2016).
Entomopathogenic fungi lipolytic and proteolytic activity
Lipolytic test was carried out by growing entomopathogenic fungi on PDA media with 1% olive oil, 0.04% methyl red, and 1.5% Tween 80. Proteolytic test conducted at PDA media supplemented with 1% skim milk that has been pasteurized at 60oC for 15 minutes. Lipolytic and proteolytic activity was detected by the formation of clear zones around the fungal colonies (Choudhary and Jain 2012).
Enzymatic index
The enzymatic index was determined using a modified formula from the research of ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.5897/ajb2015.14991","ISSN":"1684-5315","abstract":"In the present study, from a total of 100 strains isolated from waste vegetable oil contaminated soil, 38 bacterial and 14 fungi strains that presented positive lipolytic activity were obtained by detection through Rhodamine B Agar 0.02% w/v as a screening method. Additionally, two other enzymatic activities were determined. Positive proteolytic activity was evaluated in Casein Hydrolysis Agar and chitinolytic activity was identified by change in coloration in Bromocresol Purple Agar. Using these methodologies, we were able to report 18 microorganisms with two enzymatic activities and 6 microorganisms with all three enzymatic activities, thereby establishing these techniques as suitable and fast approaches for detection and semi-quantification of extracellular enzymatic activity. Key words: Enzyme, lipases, proteases, chitinases, rhodamine B, soil.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Lechuga","given":"Eugenia G Ortiz","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Zapata","given":"Isela Quintero","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Nio","given":"Katiushka Arvalo","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"African Journal of Biotechnology","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"11","issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"page":"408-416","title":"Detection of extracellular enzymatic activity in microorganisms isolated from waste vegetable oil contaminated soil using plate methodologies","type":"article-journal","volume":"15"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=13bf6028-404f-4081-a698-2c8e3b048951"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Lechuga et al., 2016)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Lechuga et al., 2016)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Lechuga et al., 2016)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}Lechuga et al. (2016):
Figure 1. Measurement of colony diameter and clear zone diameter for enzymatic index determination.
Note:
AB, CD : Clear Zone Diameter
ab, cd :Fungus Colony Diameter
Average Clear Zone Diameter (Dz) : (AB+CD)/2
Average Colony Diameter (Dk) : (ab+c)/2
Average Total Clear Zone Diameter (RDz): (Dz1+ +Dzn)/n
Average Total Colony Diameter (RDk) : (Dk1+ +Dkn)/n
The amount of the Enzymatic Index (IE) was determined based on the comparison of the average total diameter of the clear zone with the average total colony diameter with the following formula:
IE = (RDz RDk) / RDk (1)
Note* length in millimeter
Rearing nymphs of P. americana
P. americana nymphs were obtained from people's homes and reared in "rearing boxes" in the laboratory. They were fed bird feed pellets. Their egg sac was kept in a separate container until it hatches and then the nymphs that come out are separated into a new container. The test insects used were instar 3 nymphs ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"ISSN":"2356-3346","abstract":"Cockroach Periplaneta americana is a type of species cockroach that is most abundant in an urban environment in Indonesia. Cockroaches can be a mechanical vector of various pathogens such as fungi, viruses, bacteria and protozoa. Baiting gel is one way of controlling cockroaches. Each baiting gel has a different efficacy of the species and location. This study aimed to analyze the differences in preferences Periplaneta americana against baiting commercial gel with active ingredient imidacloprid (BTX) and fipronil (MFF). Research conducted at the Laboratory of Entomology FKM Diponegoro University. The study design used is a true experiment with r e p e a t i n g t h e e x p e r i m e n t 3 t i m e s . D a t a w e r e a n a l y z e d u s i n g i n d e p e n d e n t t - t e s t ( = 0 . 0 5 ) . R e s u l t o f o b s e r v a t i o n s h o w e d t h a t i n t h e n y m p h s t a g e P e r i p l a n e t a a m e r i c a n a p r e f e r e n c e n o s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e t o t h e b a i t i n g g e l B T X a n d M F F w i t h p v a l u e 0 . 7 1 0 . S o also, on the stage of imago Periplaneta americana preference no significant difference to the baiting gel BTX and MFF with p value 0,849","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Arifah","given":"F.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Hestiningsih","given":"R.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rahadian","given":"R.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Jurnal Kesehatan Masyarakat Universitas Diponegoro","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"4","issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"page":"289-297","title":"Preferensi Kecoak Amerika Periplaneta Americana (L.) (Blattaria : Blattidae) Terhadap Baiting Gel","type":"article-journal","volume":"4"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=cc1e889a-ca51-4c95-8286-87937a0a0829"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Arifah et al., 2016)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Arifah et al., 2016)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Arifah et al., 2016)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Arifah et al. 2016).
Fungal suspensions preparation
Sterile distilled water was poured into a test tube containing 14 days old entomopathogenic fungi. To the test tube 1% molasses and 0.5 ml Tween 80 were added. It was homogenized using a vortex mixer. Conidia density is calculated using a haemocytometer with a light microscope with a 400x magnification, with the following formula ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Yunizar","given":"Noni","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Protobiont","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"page":"77-82","title":"Patogenitas Isolat Jamur Entomopatogenik Metarhizium anisopliae terhadap Lalat Rumah Musca domestica L . ( Diptera : Muscidae )","type":"article-journal","volume":"7"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=16b6945a-9b45-4371-a3bc-91a66ff0d776"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Yunizar, 2018)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Yunizar, 2018)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Yunizar, 2018)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Yunizar 2018):
C = (t x 106) / (n x 0.25) (2)
Where:
C : The density of conidia per ml of solution
t : The total number of conidia in the sample box was observed
n : The number of sample boxes used
0.25 : Small-scale sample box correction factor
The conidia suspension was further diluted at densities of 107, 108, and 109 conidia/ mL.
Mortality test of entomopathogenic fungi toward P. americana
The cockroach nymph mortality was tested using dip insect method. It was modified from the ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1093/jee/tou096","ISSN":"00220493","PMID":"26470187","abstract":"Differences in free fatty acids (FFAs) chemical composition of insects may be responsible for susceptibility or resistance to fungal infection. Determination of FFAs found in cuticular lipids can effectively contribute to the knowledge concerning insect defense mechanisms. In this study, we have evaluated the susceptibility of three species of cockroaches to the entomopathogenic fungi Metarhizium anisopliae (Metschnikoff) Sorokin by topical application. Mortality due to M. anisopliae was highly significant on adults and nymphs of Blattella germanica L. (Blattodea: Blattellidae). However, mortality was faster in adults than in nymphs. Adults of Blatta orientalis L. (Blattodea: Blattidae) were not susceptible to the fungus, and nymphs of Blaptica dubia Serville (Blattodea: Blaberidae) were more susceptible to the fungus than adults. The composition of cuticular FFAs in the three species of cockroaches was also studied. The analysis indicated that all of the fatty acids were mostly straight-chain, long-chain, saturated or unsaturated. Cuticular lipids of three species o f c o c k r o a c h e s c o n t a i n e d 1 9 F F A s , r a n g i n g f r o m C 1 4 : 0 t o C 2 4 : 0 . T h e p r e d o m i n a n t f a t t y a c i d s f o u n d i n t h e t h r e e s t u d i e d s p e c i e s o f c o c k r o a c h e s w e r e o l e i c , l i n o l e i c , p a l m i t i c , a n d s t e a r i c a c i d . O n l y i n a d u l t s o f B l . o r i e n t a l i s , m y r i s t o l e i c a c i d , - l i n o l e n i c acid, arachidic acid, dihomolinoleic acid, and behenic acid were identified. Lignoceric acid was detected only in nymphs of Bl. orientalis. Heneicosylic acid and docosahexaenoic acid were identified in adults of Ba. dubia.","author":[{"dropping-particle": " " , " f a m i l y " : " G u t i e r r e z " , " g i v e n " : " A l e j a n d r a C . " , " n o n - d r o p p i n g - p a r t i c l e " : " " , " p a r s e - n a m e s " : f a l s e , " s u f f i x " : " " } , { " d r o p p i n g - p a r t i c l e " : " " , " f a m i l y " : " G o Bb i o w s k i " , " g i v e n " : " M a r e k " , " n o n - d r o p p i n g - p a r t i c l e " : " " , " p a r s e - n a m e s " : f a l s e , " s u f f i x " : " " } , { " d r o p p i n g - p a r t i c l e " : " " , " f amily":"Pennisi","given":"Mariana","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Peterson","given":"Graciela","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Garca","given":"Juan J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Manfrino","given":"Romina G.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Lpez Lastra","given":"Claudia C.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of economic entomology","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]},"page":"752-760","title":"Cuticle Fatty Acid Composition and Differential Susceptibility of Three Species of Cockroaches to the Entomopathogenic Fungi Metarhizium anisopliae (Ascomycota, Hypocreales)","type":"article-journal","volume":"108"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=a93a6462-169d-43f5-934f-97c59a6e8951"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Gutierrez et al., 2015)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Gutierrez et al., 2015)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Gutierrez et al., 2015)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Gutierrez et al. 2015). Nymphs were immersed in a conidia solution with concentration whereas using the dip insect method with 3 mL conidia concentrations of 107, 108 and 109. Conidial suspension composed of 7 days entomopathogenic fungi spores that diluted in water. It applied to each cockroach nymph and adult. This test was repeated 3 times and observed every 72, 96, 120 hours.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Based on the results of macroscopic observations IK1, IK2, and IK3 isolates had colony characteristics with black color and different growth rates. Isolates IK4 was the smallest diameter in colony growth (Figure 2). In the three isolates of Aspergillus sp. had the same characteristics but there were differences in the size of the conidia (Table 1).
From the data obtained (Table 2), the highest mortality of P. americana nymphs was 60% in the treatment of Aspergillus sp. IK3 with a concentration of 109 conidia/ mL was compared to control, whereas in the treatment of Aspergillus sp. The highest IK1 mortality of P. americana nymphs was 46% with a concentration of 109 conidia/ mL. B a s e d o n t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e A N O V A t e s t ( = 5 % ) , T h e t y p e o f e n t o m o p a t h o g e n i c f u n g i i s o l a t e s o n t h e m o r t a l i t y p e r c e n t a g e o f P . a m e r i c a n a n y m p h s d i d n o t s h o w a n y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s . A l t h o u g h t h e m o r t a l i t y r a t e d u e t o e n t o m o p a t h o g e n i c f u n g i w a s l o w , t h e t r e a t m e n t o f e n t o m o p a t h o g e n i c f u n g i s p o r e s w a s p r o v e n t o b e a b l e t o k i l l c o c k r o a c h n y m p h s ( F i g u r e 3 ) .
B a s e d o n t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e A N O V A t e s t ( = 5 % ) ( T a b l e 4 ) t h a t f o l l o w e d b y D u n c a n d o u b l e h o s e f u r t h e r t e s t ( T a b l e 3 ) , t h e t y p e o f e n t o m o p a t h o g e n i c f u n g i isolates on the mortality percentage of P. americana nymphs was show any significant differences. Aspergillus sp. 3 caused mortality to adult P. americana which was 86% higher than that of Aspergillus sp. 1 which was only 60%. Administration of entomopathogenic fungi spores was even more effective in killing adult cockroaches (Figure 4). This can be seen from the large percentage of deaths at spore density 109 when compared to the same density at the nymph stage.
Figure 5 informed that the highest chitinolytic index was produced by Aspergillus sp. 3 equal to 0.33 EI. Isolate Aspergillus sp. 3 was also an isolate that produced the largest clear zone diameter of 50 mm.The highest proteolytic index was produced by isolates Penicillium sp. equal to 0.50. However, the widest clear zone was produced by Aspergillus sp. 3 isolates, namely 34.7 mm, larger than the clear zone of Penicillium sp. ie 15 mm (Figure 6). The highest lipolytic index was produced by isolate Penicillium sp. equal to 0.31. Unfortunately, the largest clear zone diameter was produced by Aspergillus sp., 2 isolates, which was 18 mm larger than the clear zone of Penicillium sp. by 8.5 mm.
Figure 2. Colony growth of entomopathogenic fungi from cockroach
Figure 3. Morphology of P. americana nymphs after treatment (left) treatment of Aspergillus sp. 1, (right) treatment of Aspergillus sp. isolates 3
Figure 4. Morphology of P. americana adult after treatment (left) control, (middle) treatment of Aspergillus sp. 1, (right) treatment of Aspergillus sp. isolates. 3
Figure 5. The performance of enzyme index of entomopathogenic fungi
Figure 6. Colony and clear zone comparasion of entomopathogenic fungi performance
Table 1. Morphology of entomopathogenic fungi from cockroach
IsolatesMorphologyDescription IK1Insulated hyphae, conidiophores upright and simple,there are leg cells, vesicles were semi spherical, single fialid and conidia size was 40 m. It was presumed as Aspergillus sp.1
IK2Insulated hyphae, conidiophores upright and simple,there are leg cells, vesicles were semi spherical, single fialid and conidia size was 40 m. It was presumed as Aspergillus sp.2
IK3Insulated hyphae, conidiophores upright and simple,there are leg cells, vesicles were semi spherical, single fialid and conidia size was 80 m. It was presumed as Aspergillussp.3
IK4Insulated hyphae, conidiophores erectly branched, absent in leg cells and vesicles, single fialid and conidia size was 40 m. It was presumed as Penicillium sp.
Table 2. Mortality of P. americana nymph in EPF treatment
IsolatesSuspension concentration
(conidia / mL)P. americana nymph mortalityR1R2R3A%Aspergillus sp. IK11071232401081111201092412.346Aspergillus sp. IK31071121.3261081121.326109234360Negative control00000Vehicle control00000
R1: 1st Repetitions, R2: 2nd Repetitions, R3: 3rd Repetitions, A: Average, %: Mortality percentage
Table 3. Mortality of P. americana adult in entomopathogenic fungi treatment
IsolatesSuspension concentration
(conidia / mL)P. americana nymph mortalityR1R2R3A%Aspergillus sp. IK11072322.3461082232.346109333360Aspergillus sp. IK31073343.3661084534801094454.386Negative control00000Vehicle control00000Note: R1: 1st Repetitions, R2: 2nd Repetitions, R3: 3rd Repetitions, A: Average, %: Mortality percentage
Table 4. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Test ( = 5 % )
S u m o f S q u a r e s D f M e a n S q u a r e F S i g . I K 1 B e t w e e n G r o u p s . 8 8 9 2 . 4 4 4 2 . 0 0 0 . 2 1 6 W i t h i n G r o u p s 1 . 3 3 3 6 . 2 2 2 T o t a l 2 . 2 2 2 8 I K 3 B e t w e e n G r o u p s 1 . 5 5 6 2 . 7 7 8 1 . 4 0 0 . 3 1 7 W i t h i n G r o u p s 3 . 3 3 3 6 . 5 5 6 T o t a l 4 . 8 8 9 8 N C B e t w e e n G r o u p s . 0 002.000..Within Groups.0006.000Total.0008VCBetween Groups.0002.000..Within Groups.0006.000Total.0008
Discussion
Based on the results of microscopic observations in Table 1, it was found 3 fungi Aspergillus sp. and 1 Penicillium sp. The data obtained for the IK1, IK2, IK3 isolates is in accordance with the opinion of ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.13057/biodiv/d210911","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Soesanto","given":"Loekas","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rahmaddila","given":"Annisa","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Hartono","given":"Rizky","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Mugiastuti","given":"Endang","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Widarta","given":"Heri","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issue":"9","issued":{"date-parts":[["2020"]]},"page":"4010-4015","title":"Seed-borne pathogenic fungi on some soybean varieties","type":"article-journal","volume":"21"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=9b7983e4-9211-47dc-ac25-626a2bcc17cd"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Soesanto et al., 2020)","manualFormatting":"Soesanto et al., (2020)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Soesanto et al., 2020)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Soesanto et al., 2020)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}Soesanto et al. (2020) which states that the Aspergillus sp., microscopically, it has a round conidia with a bluish green color, the head of the conidia (vesicle) is shaped like a club (clavate) or round, and becomes oval (columnar) with increasing age of the colony and has a conidia stalk (conidiophora). In addition, according to ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.20473/jmv.vol1.iss1.2017.6-11","ISSN":"2615-7497","abstract":"Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengisolasi dan mengidentifikasi Aspergillus Spp pada paru-paru ayam kampung. Sampel yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah 20 paru-paru ayam kampung yang diambil secara acak dari Pasar Banyuwangi yang terletak pada wilayah tengah Kota Banyuwangi, Jawa Timur. Sampel dicuci dengan aquades steril yang berisi antibiotik selanjutnya ditanamkan pada media spesifik Sabourauds Dextrose Agar (SDA) kemudian diinkubasikan pada suhu kamar selama 3-7 hari. Pertumbuhan morfologi Aspergillus diamati secara makroskopis. Koloni yang diduga Aspergillus Spp diperiksa secara mikroskopis. Data yang diperoleh dianalisis secara deskriptif. Hasil pemeriksaan menunjukkan bahwa Aspergillus Spp dapat diisolasi pada 9 dari 20 sampel paru-paru. Dapat disimpulkan bahwa 45% sampel paru-paru yang diperiksa positif terinfeksi Aspergillus Spp dan 55% bebas dari infeksi Aspergillus Spp.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Praja","given":"Ratih Novita","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Yudhana","given":"Aditya","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Jurnal Medik Veteriner","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"page":"6","title":"Isolasi Dan Identifikasi Aspergillus Spp pada Paru-Paru Ayam Kampung Yang Dijual di Pasar Banyuwangi","type":"article-journal","volume":"1"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=de01d22f-02f5-4cee-8145-528d098ed1ad"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Praja & Yudhana, 2018)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Praja & Yudhana, 2018)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Praja & Yudhana, 2018)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Praja and Yudhana 2018) the fungus Aspergillus sp. have sterigmata appear to cover the upper half of the vesicles and have conidia with a serrated surface.The difference in the size of conidia (Table 1) caused by differences in gene regulation that regulate the formation of conidia through the conidia process so that gene expression is also different ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.4489/myco.2010.38.4.229","ISSN":"1229-8093","abstract":"Members of the genus Aspergillus are the most common fungi and all reproduce asexually by forming long chains of conidiospores (or conidia). The impact of various Aspergillus species on humans ranges from beneficial to harmful. For example, several species including Aspergillus oryzae and Aspergillus niger are used in industry for enzyme production and food processing. In contrast, Aspergillus flavus produce the most potent naturally present carcinogen aflatoxins, which contaminate various plant- and animal-based foods. Importantly, the opportunistic human pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus has become the most prevalent airborne fungal pathogen in developed countries, causing invasive aspergillosis in immunocompromised patients with a high mortality rate. A. fumigatus produces a massive number of small hydrophobic conidia as the primary means of dispersal, survival, genome-protection, and infecting hosts. Large-scale genome-wide expression studies can now be conducted due to completion of A. fumigatus genome sequencing. However, genomics becomes more powerful and informative when combined with genetics. We have been investigating the mechanisms underlying the regulation of asexual development (conidiation) and gliotoxin biosynthesis in A. fumigatus, primarily focusing on a characterization of key developmental regulators identified in the model fungus Aspergillus nidulans. In this review, I will summarize our current understanding of how conidiation in two aspergilli is regulated.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Yu","given":"Jae-Hyuk","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Mycobiology","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"4","issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]},"page":"229","title":" Regulation of Development in Aspergillus nidulans and Aspergillus fumigatus ","type":"article-journal","volume":"38"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=915e121a-be33-42d9-922b-207c1f45d919"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Yu, 2010)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Yu, 2010)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Yu, 2010)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Yu 2010).
IK4 isolate had different characteristics from the other three isolates. Based on the data obtained, IK4 has characteristics in accordance with the opinion of ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.simyco.2014.09.001","ISSN":"01660616","PMID":"25505353","abstract":"Penicillium is a diverse genus occurring worldwide and its species play important roles as decomposers of organic materials and cause destructive rots in the food industry where they produce a wide range of mycotoxins. Other species are considered enzyme factories or are common indoor air allergens. Although DNA sequences are essential for robust identification of Penicillium species, there is currently no comprehensive, verified reference database for the genus. To coincide with the move to one fungus one name in the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi and plants, the generic concept of Penicillium was re-defined to accommodate species from other genera, such as Chromocleista, Eladia, Eupenicillium, Torulomyces and Thysanophora, which together comprise a large monophyletic clade. As a result of this, and the many new species described in recent years, it was necessary to update the list of accepted species in Penicillium. The genus currently contains 354 accepted species, including new combinations for Aspergillus crystallinus, A. malodoratus and A. paradoxus, which belong to Penicillium section Paradoxa. To add to the taxonomic value of the list, we also provide information on each a c c e p t e d s p e c i e s M y c o B a n k n u m b e r , l i v i n g e x - t y p e s t r a i n s a n d p r o v i d e G e n B a n k a c c e s s i o n n u m b e r s t o I T S , - t u b u l i n , c a l m o d u l i n a n d R P B 2 s e q u e n c e s , t h e r e b y s u p p l y i n g a v e r i f i e d s e t o f s e q u e n c e s f o r e a c h s p e c i e s o f t h e g e n u s . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e n o m e n c l a t u r a l list, we recommend a standard working method for species descriptions and identifications to be adopted by laboratories working on this genus.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Visagie","given":"C. M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Houbraken","given":"J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Frisvad","given":"J. C.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Hong","given":"S. B.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Klaassen","given":"C. H.W.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Perrone","given":"G.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Seifert","given":"K. A.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Varga","given":"J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Yaguchi","given":"T.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Samson","given":"R. A.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Studies in Mycology","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]},"page":"343-371","publisher":"ELSEVIER B.V","title":"Identification and nomenclature of the genus Penicillium","type":"article-journal","volume":"78"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=463fdbbf-e468-472e-bb01-dfcf99d91dae"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Visagie et al., 2014)","manualFormatting":"Visagie et al., (2014)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Visagie et al., 2014)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Visagie et al., 2014)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}Visagie et al. (2014) that the fungal characteristics of the genus Penicillium sp. namely having hyphae with septa, conidia, sterigma, and conidia is caused by differences in gene regulation that regulate the formation of conidia through the conidia process so that gene expression is also different ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.4489/myco.2010.38.4.229","ISSN":"1229-8093","abstract":"Members of the genus Aspergillus are the most common fungi and all reproduce asexually by forming long chains of conidiospores (or conidia). The impact of various Aspergillus species on humans ranges from beneficial to harmful. For example, several species including Aspergillus oryzae and Aspergillus niger are used in industry for enzyme production and food processing. In contrast, Aspergillus flavus produce the most potent naturally present carcinogen aflatoxins, which contaminate various plant- and animal-based foods. Importantly, the opportunistic human pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus has become the most prevalent airborne fungal pathogen in developed countries, causing invasive aspergillosis in immunocompromised patients with a high mortality rate. A. fumigatus produces a massive number of small hydrophobic conidia as the primary means of dispersal, survival, genome-protection, and infecting hosts. Large-scale genome-wide expression studies can now be conducted due to completion of A. fumigatus genome sequencing. However, genomics becomes more powerful and informative when combined with genetics. We have been investigating the mechanisms underlying the regulation of asexual development (conidiation) and gliotoxin biosynthesis in A. fumigatus, primarily focusing on a characterization of key developmental regulators identified in the model fungus Aspergillus nidulans. In this review, I will summarize our current understanding of how conidiation in two aspergilli is regulated.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Yu","given":"Jae-Hyuk","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Mycobiology","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"4","issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]},"page":"229","title":" Regulation of Development in Aspergillus nidulans and Aspergillus fumigatus ","type":"article-journal","volume":"38"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=915e121a-be33-42d9-922b-207c1f45d919"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Yu, 2010)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Yu, 2010)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Yu, 2010)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Yu 2010).
The mortality test of entomopathogenic fungi used 2 isolates of fungi that had the highest chitinolytic index. In this case the isolates used were Aspergillus sp. IK1 and Aspergillus sp. IK3. ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.3934/microbiol.2017.3.689","ISSN":"2471-1888","abstract":"Chitin is an important component of the exteriors of insects and fungi. Upon degradation of chitin by a number of organisms, severe damage and even death may occur in pathogens and pests whose external surfaces contain this polymer. Currently, chemical fungicides and insecticides are the major means of controlling these disease-causing agents. However, due to the potential harm that these chemicals cause to the environment and to human and animal health, new strategies are being developed to replace or reduce the use of fungal- and pest-killing compounds in agriculture. In this context, chitinolytic microorganisms are likely to play an important role as biocontrol agents and pathogen antagonists and may also function in the control of postharvest rot. In this review, we discuss the literature concerning chitin and the basic knowledge of chitin-degrading enzymes, and also describe the biocontrol effects of chitinolytic microorganisms and their potential use as more sustainable pesticides and fungicides in the field.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Veliz","given":"Esteban A","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Martnez-Hidalgo","given":"Pilar","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"M. Hirsch","given":"Ann","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"AIMS Microbiology","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"3","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"page":"689-705","title":"Chitinase-producing bacteria and their role in biocontrol","type":"article-journal","volume":"3"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=db728a59-7455-435a-9589-8d8cb000deda"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Veliz et al., 2017)","manualFormatting":"Veliz et al., (2017)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Veliz et al., 2017)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Veliz et al., 2017)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}Veliz et al. (2017) emphasized that chitin was an essential component of insects and fungi exteriors. Degradation of external surfaces contain this polymer altered damage or even death of any pathogen. The clear zone formed shows the hydrolysis reaction of chitin polymer to N-acetyl D-glucosamine monomer by the chitinase enzyme produced by the fungus. The clear zone was seen more clearly after the addition of a solution of congo red (C32H22N6O6S2Na2 ) w h i c h b i n d s t o t h e c h i t i n p o l y m e r i n a g a r w i t h 1 . 4 N - a c e t y l - g l u c o s a m i n e b o n d s . C h i t i n p o l y m e r t h a t h a s b e e n h y d r o l y z e d i n t o N - a c e t y l - D - g l u c o s a m i n e m o n o m e r s d i d n o t h a v e 1 . 4 N - a c e t y l - g l u c o s a m i n e b o n d s s o t h a t c o n g o r e d d i d n o t b i n d s t r o n g l y t o t h e s e m onomers which results in the formation of a clear zone around the colony. The clear zone will be seen more in contrast with the addition of 1 M NaCl which will dissolve congo red which is not strongly bonded, especially around fungal colonies ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1111/1567-1364.12182","ISSN":"15671364","PMID":"25041403","abstract":"A reliable method to determine cell wall polysaccharides composition in yeast is presented, which combines acid and enzymatic h y d r o l y s i s . S u l p h u r i c a c i d t r e a t m e n t i s u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e m a n n a n s , w h e r e a s s p e c i f i c h y d r o l y t i c e n z y m e s a r e e m p l o y e d i n a t w o s e q u e n t i a l s t e p s t o q u a n t i f y c h i t i n a n d t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f - ( 1 , 3 ) a n d - ( 1 , 6 ) - g l u c a n i n t h e t o t a l - g l u c a n o f t h e c e l l w a l l . I n t h e f i r s t s t e p , c h i t i n a n d - ( 1 , 3 ) - g l u c a n w e r e h y d r o l y s e d i n t o t h e i r c o r r e s p o n d i n g m o n o m e r s N - a c e t y l g l u c o s a m i n e a n d g l u c o s e , r e s p e c t i v e l y , b y t h e c o m b i n e d a c t i o n o f a c h i t i n a s e f r o m S t r e p t o m y c e s g r i s e u s a n d a p u r e p r e p a r a t i o n o f e n d o / e x o - - ( 1 , 3 ) - g l u c a n a s e f r o m T r i c h o d e r m a s p e c i e s . T h i s s t e p w a s f o l l o w e d b y a d d i t i o n o f r e c o m b i n a n t e n d o - - ( 1 , 6 ) - g l u c a n a s e f r o m T r i c h o d e r m a h a r z i a n u m w i t h - g l u c o s i d a s e f r o m A s p e r g i l l u s n i g e r t o h y d r o l y s e t h e r e m a i n i n g - g l u c a n . T h i s l a t t e r c o m p o n e n t c o r r e s p o n d e d t o a h i g h l y b r a n c h e d - ( 1 , 6 ) - g l u c a n t h a t c o n t a i n e d a b o u t 7 5 - 8 0 % o f l i n e a r - ( 1 , 6 ) - g l u c o s e l i n k e d u n i t s a s d e d u c e d f r o m p e r i o d a t e o x i d a t i o n . W e v a l i d a t e d t h i s n o v e l m e t h o d b y s h o w i n g t h a t t h e c o n t e n t o f - ( 1 , 3 ) , - ( 1 , 6 ) - g l u c a n o r c h i t i n w a s d r a m a t i c a l l y d e c r e a s e d i n y e a s t m utants defective in the biosynthesis of these cell wall components. Moreover, we found that heat shock at 42C in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and treatment of this yeast species and Candida albicans with the antifungal drug caspofungin resulted in 2- to 3-fo l d i n c r e a s e o f c h i t i n a n d i n a r e d u c t i o n o f - ( 1 , 3 ) - g l u c a n a c c o m p a n i e d b y a n i n c r e a s e o f - ( 1 , 6 ) - g l u c a n , w h e r e a s e t h a n o l s t r e s s h a d a p p a r e n t l y n o e f f e c t o n y e a s t c e l l w a l l c o m p o s i t i o n . " , " a u t h o r " : [ { " d r o p p i n g - p a r t i c l e " : " " , " f a m i l y " : " S c h i a v o n e " , " g i v e n " : " M a r i o n ","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Vax","given":"Amlie","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Formosa","given":"Ccile","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Martin-Yken","given":"Hlne","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Dague","given":"Etienne","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Franois","given":"Jean M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"FEMS Yeast Research","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"6","issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]},"page":"933-947","title":"A combined chemical and enzymatic method to determine quantitatively the polysaccharide components in the cell wall of yeasts","type":"article-journal","volume":"14"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=c0a64b16-00e3-4fda-b47d-7d9816ec0ccb"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Schiavone et al., 2014)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Schiavone et al., 2014)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Schiavone et al., 2014)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Schiavone et al. 2014).
Chitinases were particularly attractive to fungicidal, insecticidal, and nematicidal activities purposes ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.biotechadv.2018.01.002","ISSN":"07349750","PMID":"29305895","abstract":"The negative impact of the massive use of synthetic pesticides on the environment and on human health has stimulated the search for environment-friendly practices for controlling plant diseases and pests. Among them, biocontrol, which relies on using beneficial organisms or their products (bioactive molecules and/or hydrolytic enzymes), holds the greatest promise and is considered a pillar of integrated pest management. Chitinases are particularly attractive to this purpose since they have fungicidal, insecticidal, and nematicidal activities. Here, current knowledge on the biopesticidal action of microbial and viral chitinases is reviewed, together with a critical analysis of their future development as biopesticides.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Berini","given":"Francesca","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Katz","given":"Chen","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gruzdev","given":"Nady","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Casartelli","given":"Morena","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Tettamanti","given":"Gianluca","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Marinelli","given":"Flavia","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Biotechnology Advances","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"3","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"page":"818-838","publisher":"Elsevier Inc","title":"Microbial and viral chitinases: Attractive biopesticides for integrated pest management","type":"article-journal","volume":"36"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=e102f019-2f45-418e-ada0-5402a8df896b"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Berini et al., 2018)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Berini et al., 2018)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Berini et al., 2018)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Berini et al. 2018). Chitin-degrading fungi including Aspergillus,Mucor, andMortierellaADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1007/s00284-013-0440-4","ISBN":"0028401304404","ISSN":"03438651","PMID":"23989799","abstract":"This paper provides a review of the latest research findings on the applications of microbial chitinases to biological control. Microorganisms producing these enzymes can inhibit the growth of many fungal diseases that pose a serious threat to global crop production. Currently, efforts are being made to discover producers of chitinolytic enzymes. The potential exists that natural biofungicides will replace chemical fungicides or will be used to supplement currently used fungicides, which would reduce the negative impact of chemicals on the environment and support the sustainable development of agriculture and forestry. 2013 The Author(s).","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Brzezinska","given":"Maria Swiontek","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jankiewicz","given":"Urszula","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Burkowska","given":"Aleksandra","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Walczak","given":"Maciej","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Current Microbiology","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]},"page":"71-81","title":"Chitinolytic microorganisms and their possible application in environmental protection","type":"article-journal","volume":"68"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=49ad1c4b-155f-4a9b-8ef9-8efc7d3f5917"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Brzezinska et al., 2014)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Brzezinska et al., 2014)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Brzezinska et al., 2014)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Brzezinska et al. 2014). According to ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"abstract":"ABSTRAK Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengisolasi cendawan B. bassiana dari Kabupaten Malang dan Magetan, mendeskripsikan karakter morfologi setiap isolat, mendeskripsikan perbedaan efektivitas isolat B. bassiana dari daerah yang berbeda dalam mengendalikan P. xylostella, menentukan isolat B. bassiana yang paling efektif dalam mengendalikan P. xylostella, dan untuk mendeskripsikan kaitan antara karakter morfologi dengan efektivitas B. bassiana dalam mengendalikan P. xylostella. Cendawan diisolasi dari perkebunan kubis yang berada di daerah Cangar, Junrejo, Pujon, Plaosan, Ngancar, dan Sarangan dengan menggunakan metode pemancingan dengan serangga. Karakter morfologi isolat yang diamati adalah warna koloni, ukuran konidia, ukuran konidium, dan kerapatan hifa.Selain itu, viabilitas tiap-tiap isolat juga diamati. Efektivitas isolat ditinjau berdasarkan persentase kematian serangga uji dan lama waktu kematian. Data morfologi dianalisis secara deskriptif, sedangkan data mortalitas dan waktu kematian dianalisis dengan menggunakan analisis varian satu arah. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa dari keenam isolat yang didapat, isolat Junrejo adalah isolat yang memiliki ukuran konidia dan konidium terbesar serta hifa yang rapat sehingga menyebabkan tingginya persentase kematian dalam waktu yang singkat dibandingkan dengan kelima isolat lain. Kata kunci: cendawan entomopatogen; Beauveria bassiana; Plutella xylostella; Beauveria bassiana isolat Junrejo Malang ABSTRACT This study aimed to isolate B. bassiana from Malang and Magetan regency, to describe morphological character of B. bassiana, to describe the effectiveness of B. bassiana tested to larvae of P. xylostella, and to describe relationship between morphological character and efectiveness of B. bassiana to P. xylostella. Beauveria bassiana was isolated from cabbage plantation at Cangar, Junrejo, Pujon, Plaosan, Ngancar, and Sarangan by using insect bait method. Morphological character of isolate which was observed were colony's colour, conidia's size, conidium's size, hipha's density, and the effectiveness of isolate. Efectiveness of isolate observed based on the percentage of mortality P. xylostella and the length time of death. Morphological data were analyzed descriptively, whereas mortality data and length of death time were analyzed using one way analysis of variance. The results showed that isolate Junrejo have the biggest conidia and conidium as well as the most dense hipha, which causing the highest ","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Utami","given":"Retno Sri","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ambarwati","given":"Reni","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Lentera Bio","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]},"page":"59-66","title":"Eksplorasi dan Karakterisasi Cendawan Entomopatogen Beauveria bassiana dari Kabupaten Malang dan Magetan Exploration and Characterization of Entomopathogenic Fungi Beauveria bassiana from Malang and Magetan Regency","type":"article-journal","volume":"3"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=b932b64d-10ed-440d-b4f7-2fe4bf3d580f"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Utami & Ambarwati, 2014)","manualFormatting":"Utami & Ambarwati (2014)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Utami & Ambarwati, 2014)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Utami & Ambarwati, 2014)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}Utami and Ambarwati (2014) differences in the effectiveness of entomopathogenic fungi isolates in killing insects were influenced by several factors, including extracellular enzymes secreted by fungi to degrade insect bodies, the types of toxins produced, and conidia size.Based on the research that has been done, Aspergillus sp. 3 has a greater chitinolytic and proteolytic index compared to Aspergillus sp. 1 (Figure 4). This shows the ability of Aspergillus sp. 3 in secreting extracellular enzymes such as chitinase and protease is higher when compared to isolates of Aspergillus sp. 1. These enzymes are needed to penetrate the mechanical defenses of adult P. americana so that the entomopathogenic fungi can carry out further infection processes in the target insect's body. Therefore, the mortality of P. americana adults was higher when treated using Aspergillus sp. 3 compared to isolates of Aspergillus sp.1.
This is supported by research conducted by ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.bjm.2016.08.004","ISSN":"16784405","PMID":"28262388","abstract":"Beauveria bassiana, an entomopathogenic fungus, is the alternative biocontrol agent exploited against major economic crop pests. Pieris brassicae L. is an emerging pest of the Brassicaceae family. Therefore, in the present study, fungal isolates of Beauveria bassiana, viz. MTCC 2028, MTCC 4495, MTCC 6291, and NBAII-11, were evaluated for their virulence against third instar larvae of P. brassicae. Among all these fungal isolates, maximum mortality (86.66%) was recorded in B. bassiana MTCC 4495 at higher concentration of spores (109conidia/ml), and the minimum mortality (30.00%) was recorded in B. bassiana MTCC 6291 at a lower concentration (107conidia/ml) after ten days of treatment. The extracellular cuticle-degrading enzyme activities of fungal isolates were measured. Variability was observed both in the pattern of enzyme secretion and the level of enzyme activities among various fungal isolates. B. bassiana MTCC 4495 recorded the maximum mean chitinase (0.51U/ml), protease (1.12U/ml), and lipase activities (1.36U/ml). The minimum mean chitinase and protease activities (0.37 and 0.91U/ml, respectively) were recorded in B. bassiana MTCC 6291. The minimum mean lipase activity (1.04U/ml) was recorded in B. bassiana NBAII-11. Our studies revealed B. bassiana MTCC 4495 as the most pathogenic isolate against P. brassicae, which also recorded maximum extracellular enzyme activities, suggesting the possible roles of extracellular enzymes in the pathogenicity of B. bassiana against P. brassicae.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Dhawan","given":"Manish","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Joshi","given":"Neelam","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Brazilian Journal of Microbiology","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"3","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"page":"522-529","publisher":"Sociedade Brasileira de Microbiologia","title":"Enzymatic comparison and mortality of Beauveria bassiana against cabbage caterpillar Pieris brassicae LINN","type":"article-journal","volume":"48"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=de09728b-e4ea-41cf-89cf-b990244a9ed7"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Dhawan & Joshi, 2017)","manualFormatting":"Dhawan & Joshi (2017)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Dhawan & Joshi, 2017)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Dhawan & Joshi, 2017)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}Dhawan and Joshi (2017) which states that the activity of extracellular enzymes produced by entomopathogenic fungi is one of the determining factors for the level of virulence. The most important enzyme in this process was chitinase, which plays a role in degrading the chitin polymer contained in insect cuticles. Direct testing of third instar Pieris brassicae larvae experienced the highest mortality after being treated using the entomopathogenic fungi Beauveria bassiana which had the highest chitinase activity.
Another enzyme activity required to penetrate the host body is protease. This enzyme will break down the protein in the insect's body into amino acids which are used for the growth of entomopathogenic fungi. Based on research conducted by ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.vetpar.2014.02.011","ISSN":"0304-4017","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Perinotto","given":"Wendell M S","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Golo","given":"Patricia S","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Coutinho","given":"Caio J B","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"S","given":"Fillipe A","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Santi","given":"Luclia","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Beys","given":"Walter O","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Junges","given":"Angela","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Vainstein","given":"Marilene H","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Schrank","given":"Augusto","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Salles","given":"Cristiane M C","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bittencourt","given":"Vnia R E P","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Veterinary Parasitology","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"1-2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]},"page":"189-196","publisher":"Elsevier B.V.","title":"Veterinary Parasitology Enzymatic activities and effects of mycovirus infection on the virulence of Metarhizium anisopliae in Rhipicephalus microplus","type":"article-journal","volume":"203"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=e73abf51-04a1-43d3-8b2c-0fb0ec029b17"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Perinotto et al., 2014)","manualFormatting":"Perinotto et al., (2014)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Perinotto et al., 2014)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}Perinotto et al. (2014) entomopathogenic fungi that have higher proteolytic activity have a higher virulence level as well.
Apart from chitinase and protease activity, lipase activity is also an important part of determining the virulence of entomopathogenic fungi. Lipase functions to hydrolyze ester bonds in lipoproteins, fats, and waxes on the inside of the insect integument so that it will make it easier for entomopathogenic fungi to penetrate. This is in accordance with research conducted by ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.bjm.2016.08.004","ISSN":"16784405","PMID":"28262388","abstract":"Beauveria bassiana, an entomopathogenic fungus, is the alternative biocontrol agent exploited against major economic crop pests. Pieris brassicae L. is an emerging pest of the Brassicaceae family. Therefore, in the present study, fungal isolates of Beauveria bassiana, viz. MTCC 2028, MTCC 4495, MTCC 6291, and NBAII-11, were evaluated for their virulence against third instar larvae of P. brassicae. Among all these fungal isolates, maximum mortality (86.66%) was recorded in B. bassiana MTCC 4495 at higher concentration of spores (109conidia/ml), and the minimum mortality (30.00%) was recorded in B. bassiana MTCC 6291 at a lower concentration (107conidia/ml) after ten days of treatment. The extracellular cuticle-degrading enzyme activities of fungal isolates were measured. Variability was observed both in the pattern of enzyme secretion and the level of enzyme activities among various fungal isolates. B. bassiana MTCC 4495 recorded the maximum mean chitinase (0.51U/ml), protease (1.12U/ml), and lipase activities (1.36U/ml). The minimum mean chitinase and protease activities (0.37 and 0.91U/ml, respectively) were recorded in B. bassiana MTCC 6291. The minimum mean lipase activity (1.04U/ml) was recorded in B. bassiana NBAII-11. Our studies revealed B. bassiana MTCC 4495 as the most pathogenic isolate against P. brassicae, which also recorded maximum extracellular enzyme activities, suggesting the possible roles of extracellular enzymes in the pathogenicity of B. bassiana against P. brassicae.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Dhawan","given":"Manish","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Joshi","given":"Neelam","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Brazilian Journal of Microbiology","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"3","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"page":"522-529","publisher":"Sociedade Brasileira de Microbiologia","title":"Enzymatic comparison and mortality of Beauveria bassiana against cabbage caterpillar Pieris brassicae LINN","type":"article-journal","volume":"48"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=de09728b-e4ea-41cf-89cf-b990244a9ed7"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Dhawan & Joshi, 2017)","manualFormatting":"Dhawan & Joshi (2017)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Dhawan & Joshi, 2017)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Dhawan & Joshi, 2017)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}Dhawan and Joshi (2017), entomopathogenic fungi that have low lipase activity, are less effective in controlling the larvae of Pieris brassicae.
Aspergillus sp. was a fungus capable of producing mycotoxins such as ochratoxin A, B, and C, aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2, M1, and M2 ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Martindah","given":"Eny","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bahri","given":"S","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Wartazoa","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"3","issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"page":"115-124","title":"Kontaminasi Mikotoksin pada Rantai Makanan","type":"article-journal","volume":"26"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=c3884266-4334-474f-b63f-8d6062e8a414"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Martindah & Bahri, 2016)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Martindah & Bahri, 2016)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Martindah & Bahri, 2016)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Martindah and Bahri 2016) and fumonisin B2 ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1007/s00253-002-1032-6","ISBN":"0025300210","ISSN":"01757598","PMID":"12172605","abstract":"Aspergillus niger is one of the most important microorganisms used in biotechnology. It has been in use already for many decades to produce extracellular (food) enzymes and citric acid. In fact, citric acid and many A. niger enzymes are considered GRAS by the United States Food and Drug Administration. In addition, A. niger is used for biotransformations and waste treatment. In the last two decades, A. niger has been developed as an important transformation host to over-express food enzymes. Being pre-dated by older names, the name A. niger has been conserved for economical and information retrieval reasons and there is a taxonomical consensus based on molecular data that the only other common species closely related to A. niger in the Aspergillus series Nigri is A. tubingensis. A. niger, like other filamentous fungi, should be treated carefully to avoid the formation of spore dust. However, compared with other filamentous fungi, it does not stand out as a particular problem concerning allergy or mycopathology. A few medical cases, e.g. lung infections, have been reported, but always in severely immunocompromised patients. In tropical areas, ear infections (otomycosis) do occur due to A. niger invasion of the outer ear canal but this may be caused by mechanical damage of the skin barrier. A. niger strains produce a series of secondary metabolites, but it is only ochratoxin A that can be regarded as a mycotoxin in the strict sense of the word. Only 3-10% of the strains examined for ochratoxin A production have tested positive under favourable conditions. New and unknown isolates should be checked for ochratoxin A production before they are developed as production organisms. It is concluded, with these restrictions, that A. niger is a safe production organism.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Schuster","given":"E.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Dunn-Coleman","given":"N.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Frisvad","given":"J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Dijck","given":"P.","non-dropping-particle":"Van","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"4-5","issued":{"date-parts":[["2002"]]},"page":"426-435","title":"On the safety of Aspergillus niger - A review","type":"article-journal","volume":"59"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=1170a4d3-f1fa-46c3-b596-c2f2f807dd2b"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Schuster et al., 2002)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Schuster et al., 2002)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Schuster et al., 2002)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Schuster et al. 2002). According to ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.jscs.2010.06.006","ISSN":"13196103","abstract":"Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of molds that have adverse effects on humans, animals, and crops that result in illnesses and economic losses. The worldwide contamination of foods and feeds with mycotoxins is a significant problem. Aflatoxins, ochratoxins, trichothecenes, zearalenone, fumonisins, tremorgenic toxins, and ergot alkaloids are the mycotoxins of greatest agro-economic importance. Some molds are capable of producing more than one mycotoxin and some mycotoxins are produced by more than one fungal species. Often more than one mycotoxin is found on a contaminated substrate. Mycotoxins occur more frequently in areas with a hot and humid climate, favourable for the growth of molds, they can also be found in temperate zones. Exposure to mycotoxins is mostly by ingestion, but also occurs by the dermal and inhalation routes. The diseases caused by exposure to mycotoxins are known as mycotoxicoses. However, mycotoxicoses often remain unrecognized by medical professionals, except when large numbers of people are involved. Factors influencing the presence of mycotoxins in foods or feeds include environmental conditions related to storage that can be controlled. Other extrinsic factors such as climate or intrinsic factors such as fungal strain specificity, strain variation, and instability of toxigenic properties are more difficult to control. Mycotoxins have various acute and chronic effects on humans and animals (especially monogastrics) depending on species and susceptibility of an animal within a species. Ruminants have, however, generally been more resistant to the adverse effects of mycotoxins. This is because the rumen microbiota is capable of degrading mycotoxins. The economic impact of mycotoxins include loss of human and animal life, increased health care and veterinary care costs, reduced livestock production, disposal of contaminated foods and feeds, and investment in research and applications to reduce severity of the mycotoxin problem. Although efforts have continued internationally to set guidelines to control mycotoxins, practical measures have not been adequately implemented. 2010.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Zain","given":"Mohamed E.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Saudi Chemical Society","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2011"]]},"page":"129-144","publisher":"King Saud University","title":"Impact of mycotoxins on humans and animals","type":"article-journal","volume":"15"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=0fbd7bf9-3ee7-4b40-bdf8-67e7ee57d8d8"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Zain, 2011)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Zain, 2011)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Zain, 2011)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Zain 2011) aflatoxins are immunosuppressive which can disrupt the immune system of adult P. americana which is attacked by entomopathogenic fungi. Meanwhile, ocratoxin works by disrupting the nervous system of the neurons and psychomotor speed so that adult P. americana has slower moving speed and reduced appetite which can lead to slow death ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.clinthera.2018.05.004","ISSN":"1879114X","PMID":"29880330","abstract":"Purpose: The effects of air pollutants have been receiving increased attention both clinically and in the media. One such pollutant is mold, fungal growth in the form of multicellular filaments known as hyphae. The growth of molds is omnipresent not only in outdoor settings but also in indoor environments containing excessive amounts of moisture. Methods: PubMed was searched for relevant articles using terms such as mold, mycotoxins, fungi, immunity, inflammation, neurodevelopment, cognition, Alzheimer's, and autism. Findings: Exposure to molds is most commonly associated with allergies and asthma. However, it is now thought to be associated with many complex health problems, since some molds, especially Trichoderma, Fusarium and Stachybotrys spp, produce mycotoxins that are absorbed from the skin, airways, and intestinal lining. People exposed to molds and mycotoxins present with symptoms affecting multiple organs, including the lungs, musculoskeletal system, as well as the central and peripheral nervous systems. Furthermore, evidence has recently implicated exposure to mycotoxins in the pathogenesis of autism spectrum disorder. The effects of mycotoxins can be mediated via different pathways that include the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, especially from mast cells. Implications: The information reviewed indicates that exposure to mold and mycotoxins can affect the nervous system, directly or through immune cell activation, thus contributing to neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorder.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ratnaseelan","given":"Aarane M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Tsilioni","given":"Irene","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Theoharides","given":"Theoharis C.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Clinical Therapeutics","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"6","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"page":"903-917","publisher":"Elsevier HS Journals, Inc.","title":"Effects of Mycotoxins on Neuropsychiatric Symptoms and Immune Processes","type":"article-journal","volume":"40"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=3283bf7e-f77c-4032-b2c6-c14acf568ed7"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Ratnaseelan et al., 2018)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Ratnaseelan et al., 2018)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Ratnaseelan et al., 2018)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Ratnaseelan et al. 2018).
Another factor that affects the effectiveness of the entomopathogenic fungi is the density of conidia used in the test. Based on the research that has been done, the highest mortality was found in the treatment using isolates with conidia density of 109 conidia/ mL for both types of entomopathogenic fungi. Meanwhile, the lowest mortality was found in the treatment using conidia density 107 and 108 conidia/ ml for Aspergillus sp. 1 and 107 conidia/ ml for Aspergillus sp. 3.
In the cockroach nymph stage test, the mortality rate was lower than that of adult cockroaches. ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1673/031.010.20101","ISSN":"15362442","PMID":"21268698","abstract":"Stage-dependent dichlorvos and propoxur tolerance in a field population of the German cockroach, Blattella germanica Linnaeus (Blatodea: Blattellidae), was investigated in the laboratory using a topical application bioassay. The results showed the 6 week-old nymphs were more to l e r a n t t o d i c h l o r v o s a n d p r o p o x u r t h a n t h e o t h e r a g e s t e s t e d . L D 5 0 v a l u e s o f d i c h l o r v o s a n d p r o p o x u r f o r t h e 6 w e e k - o l d n y m p h s w e r e 2 . 0 0 3 g p e r i n s e c t a n d 5 . 2 9 6 g p e r i n s e c t , r e s p e c t i v e l y . T o l e r a n c e r a t i o s o f 1 8 . 5 5 - f o l d a n d 4 . 9 8 - f o l d f o r L D 5 0 w e r e o b t a i ned from 6-week-old nymphs compared to 4 week-old nymphs. The specific activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) from 1 week-old nymphs was the highest among all tested developmental stages of nymphs and adult males and females. The specific activity of AChE decreased significantly with increasing age. The sensitivity of AChE to dichlorvos was the highest with a ki value of 3.12 - 104 mol-1min-1 in the last nymphal stage of B. germanica (about 6 weeks-old). The AChE from 4 week-old nymphs was the most sensitive to propoxur, with the highest ki value being 2.63 - 10 5 mol-1min-1. These results indicated that the different developmental stages and sexes of B. germanica affected the inhibition of AChE by dichlorvos and propoxur.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Qian","given":"K.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Wei","given":"X. Q.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Zeng","given":"X. P.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Liu","given":"T.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gao","given":"X. W.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Insect Science","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"194","issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]},"page":"1-10","title":"Stage-dependent tolerance of the German cockroach, Blattella germanica for dichlorvos and propoxur","type":"article-journal","volume":"10"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=97e027c0-18d1-484a-bbb0-1fcdb74bbe4c"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Qian et al., 2010)","manualFormatting":"Qian et al., (2010)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Qian et al., 2010)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Qian et al., 2010)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}Qian et al. (2010) proved that 6 week-old nymphs were more tolerant to dichlorvos and propoxur than the other ages tested, whereas both types of materials are chemical pesticides. The specific activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) took responsible for this tolerance. Carbamate and organophosphate insecticides were like target site for AChE. The inhibition of AChE by carbamate or organophosphate insecticides occurs via a reversible complex formation followed by carbamylation or phosphorylation. AChE is a key enzyme in the transmission of nerve impulses, specifically in termination of cholinergic synaptic transmission in mammals and insects. The primary mechanism of acute toxicity of carbamate and organophosphate insecticides has been reported as its inhibition of AChE in the cholinergic synapse of the nervous system of the cockroach.The specific activity of AChE decreased significantly with increasing age. Thus, the application of entomopathogenic fungi to cockroaches as a biocontrol was influenced by the age of the target insects.
In conclusion, there were 4 entomopathogenic fungi isolates obtained in this study consisting of 3 isolates of Aspergillus sp and 1 Penicillium sp. Chitin-degrading enzymes were used as key characteristics of candidate biocontrol agents against P. americana. Further testing of biocontrol activity on cockroaches using Aspergillus strains IK1 and IK3 showed the mortality of P. americana in both the nymph and adult stages. This study showed that the entomopathogenic fungi obtained was more effective in controlling cockroaches in the adult stage than nymphs.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to express our gratitude and thanks to all side whom help and contribute for allowing us to conduct the research.
REFERENCES
ADDIN Mendeley Bibliography CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Arifah F, Hestiningsih R, Rahadian R. 2016. Preferensi kecoak amerika Periplaneta americana (L.) (Bl a t t a r i a / : B l a t t i d a e ) t e r h a d a p b a i t i n g g e l . J u r n a l K e s e h a t a n M a s y a r a k a t U n i v e r s i t a s D i p o n e g o r o 4 ( 4 ) : 2 8 9 - 2 9 7 . [ I n d o n e s i a n ]
A t i o k e n g T a t a n g R J , T s i l a H G , W a b o P o n J . 2 0 1 7 . M e d i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t p a r a s i t e s c a r r i e d b y c o c k r o a c h e s i n M e l o n g S u b d i v i s i o n , L i t t o r a l , Cameroon. J Parasitol Res 2017. DOI: 10.1155/2017/7967325.
Barnet HL, Hunter B. 1998. Ilustrated Genera of Imperfect Fungi (4th ed.). Macmillian Publishing Company.
Berini F, Katz C, Gruzdev N, Casartelli M, Tettamanti G, Marinelli F. 2018. Microbial and viral chitinases: Attractive biopesticides for integrated pest management. Biotechnol Adv 36 (3): 818-838. DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2018.01.002.
Brzezinska MS, Jankiewicz U, Burkowska A, Walczak M. 2014. Chitinolytic microorganisms and their possible application in environmental protection. Curr Microbiol 68 (1): 71-81. DOI: 10.1007/s00284-013-0440-4.
Choudhary V, Jain PC. 2012. Screening of alkaline protease production by fungal isolates from different habitats of Sagar and Jabalpur district (MP). J Acad Ind Res 1 (4): 215-220.
Dhawan M, Joshi N. 2017. Enzymatic comparison and mortality of Beauveria bassiana against cabbage caterpillar Pieris brassicae LINN. Braz J Microbiol 48 (3): 522-529. DOI: 10.1016/j.bjm.2016.08.004.
Gutierrez AC , G o Bb i o w s k i M , P e n n i s i M , P e t e r s o n G , G a r c a J J , M a n f r i n o R G , L p e z L a s t r a C C . 2 0 1 5 . C u t i c l e f a t t y a c i d c o m p o s i t i o n a n d d i f f e r e n t i a l s u s c e p t i b i l i t y o f t h r e e s p e c i e s o f c o c k r o a c h e s t o t h e e n t o m o p a t h o g e n i c f u n g i M e t a r h i z i u m a n i s o p l i a e ( A s c o m y c o t a , H y p o c r e a les). J Econ Entomol 108 (2): 752-60. DOI: 10.1093/jee/tou096.
Jain A, Jain R, Jain S. 2020. Isolation of Coprophilous Fungi (Moist Chamber Method). In: Basic Techniques in Biochemistry, Microbiology and Molecular Biology. Springer Protocols Handbooks. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9861-6_32.
Lechuga EGO, Zapata IQ, Nio KA. 2016. Detection of extracellular enzymatic activity in microorganisms isolated from waste vegetable oil contaminated soil using plate methodologies. Afr J Biotechnol 15(11): 408- 416. DOI: d y z { A C
-
.
0
1
8
ᶪ}s}sj` hzFv ^J mH sH hJ+ hjW ^J h,a ^J mH sH hJ+ ^J mH sH hJ+ hjW ^J mH sH hJ+ hxBM j h{ h,a H*OJ QJ h,a CJ aJ mH sH h{ h,a CJ aJ h,a hxBM
h9 ^J h>. mH sH j h{ h,a H*h{ h,a h,a h9 h,a h,a 6] h,a h,a # { @
1 ` س % O $ C ' gd"W gdySX gd{ gd{ gd{ gd{ gd{ gd(&